Brief history of human civilization and development

Introduction

A civilization is characterized by urban development, social stratification, symbolic communication forms and domination over the natural environment by a cultural to elite. Civilizations are ultimately associated with and often further defined to other socio-political-economic characteristics also including centralization with the domestication of both humans and other organisms i.e. specialization of labor, culturally ideologies of progress and supremacism, monumental architecture, taxation, societal dependence on farming as an agricultural practice, and expansionism. History begins in the Paleolithic Era, which is followed Neolithic Era i.e. New Stone Age, and the Agricultural Revolution (between 8000 and 5000 BCE) in Fertile Crescent. The latter period has marked a change in human history as humans began the systematic husbandry of plants and animals. Nomadism was continued in some locations i.e especially in isolated regions with few domesticable plant species.

HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION

Mesopotamia and Egypt: 3100 BC

In about 3200 BC that two earliest civilizations are developed in the region where southwest Asia joins northeast Africa. Great rivers are the crucial part of a story. The Sumerians settled that in what is now southern Iraq, between the mouths of Euphrates and Tigris. Egypt develops in the long narrow strip of the Nile valley.

Rivers offers the two main advantages to developing civilization. They provided water to irrigate fields and they offered the easiest method of transport for the society without paved roads. Rivers will play equally important role in two other early civilizations i.e those of the Indus and of northern China.

The Indus: 2500 BC

It is not known Mesopotamia inspires first civilization of India, whether it is spontaneous local development but about 2500 BC. Neolithic villages along the banks of Indus are on the verge of combining into a unified and sophisticated culture also.

The Indus civilization has two large cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro which expand over a larger region than Egypt and Mesopotamia combined. It will survive in a remarkably consistent form for about 1000 years.

The Aegean: 2000 BC

The next region to develop a distinctive civilization centers on the Aegean Sea. The bays and the inlets of the rugged coastal regions of Greece and many small islands strung like pearls across this relatively sheltered sea which combine to make this an ideal area for trade among people whose levels of nautical skill make short hops of a necessary precaution.

The Aegean civilization stands at the start of a very lively tradition of Mediterranean culture. It begins on a large island which is perfectly placed to guard the entrance to the Aegean Crete.

China: 1600 BC

The longest consistent civilization in a human story so far is that of China. This vast eastern empire seems to set apart from rest of the world and fiercely proud of its own traditions resisting foreign influences. Its history begins in characteristically independent manner.

There are no such identifiable precedents for a civilization of Shang dynasty, which emerges in China in about 1600 BC. It's written texts introduce characters recognizably related to Chinese today. This is a civilization which begins as it will continue with confidence.

America: 1200 BC

Around the time of the earliest American civilizations have their beginnings with the Olmecs in central America and Chavin in the Andes

Both of these cultures develop large towns and centered on temples. Both are famous for their sculpture and each in its own region the start of a succession of civilizations leading directly to two which are discovered and destroyed in the 16th century by the Spanish.

The Mediterranean: 1000 BC

The first distinctively Mediterranean civilization of Aegean comes to sudden and still unexplained end in around 1200 BC. From their base in the Lebanon, they establish colonies along the coast of Africa and even into the Atlantic.

Regional civilizations: AD 400 - 1500

With the dominance of Greece and Rome in the west of China in the east and of strongly individual cultures in central and south America each of successive civilization in any region tends at this time to be a variation on local traditions.
One such is Islam. The establishment of the caliphate in Damascus and then in Baghdad leads to distinctively Muslim civilizations in an unbroken belt from North Africa to North India.

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

It is studies of the human condition with its core being of the capability approach. Measurement of human development is Human Development Index (HDI) and formulated by United Nations Development Programme. The index includes a statistics such as life expectancy at birth, an education index and gross national income per capita.

There are six basic aspects of human development: equality, sustainability, productivity, empowerment, cooperation, and security.

1. Equality is an idea of fairness for every person between men and women. We each have the right to education and healthcare.
2. Sustainability is that we all have right to earn a living that can be sustain our lives and have access a more even distribution of goods.
3.Productivity states the full participation of people in the process of income generation. This also means that Government needs more efficient social programs for people.
4.Empowerment is freedom of people to influence development and decisions that affect their lives.
5.Cooperation stipulates the participation and belonging to the communities and groups as means of mutual enrichment and a source of social meaning.
6.Security offers people development opportunities to freely and safely with confidence that they will not disappear suddenly in the future.

Ozone layer Depletion

Ozone is a highly reactive molecule which contains three oxygen atoms. It is constantly being formed and broken down in the high atmosphere. Ozone is a gas composed of three atoms of oxygen. It is bluish gas that is harmful to breathe and early 90% of the Earth's ozone in the stratosphere and referred to the ozone layer. Ozone absorbs a band of ultraviolet radiation called UVB.

Ozone layer depletion is the reduction of the amount of ozone in the stratosphere. Depletion begins when CFC’s get into the stratosphere. Ultraviolet radiation which is from the sun breaks up CFCs. The breaking up action releases the Chlorine atoms. Chlorine atoms react with the Ozone, starting a chemical cycle that destroys the good ozone in that areas. One chlorine atom can break more than 100,000 ozone molecules. From industries and our day to day life many gasses like CFC’s , Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFC’s) , halons, halogens e.t.c. get evolved in an atmosphere which is mainly responsible for ozone depletion as it contains or produces Chlorine (Cl) atom.

There is another Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS) such as methyl bromide which is used in pesticides, halons used in fire extinguishers, and methyl chloroform. Other chemicals that naturally destroy Ozone are Noy, Hox, Clx, which belong to the Nitrogen, Hydrogen, and Chlorine respectively. All we can do is to be more responsible with our manufacturing needs.

The reaction involve is:

O2+ UV → O+O

O+O2 → O3

CFCl3 + electromagnetic radiation → Cl· + ·CFCl2

Cl· + O3 → ClO + O2

ClO + O3 → Cl· + 2 O2

The Antarctic Ozone Hole

As a result of ozone depletion, over Antarctica, the ozone hole is formed. This ozone hole caused to melting the ice of Antarctica which increase the sea level and other harmful effects on its environment.

EFFECTS OF OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

Effect on Aquatic System:

Affects phytoplankton, fish, and larval crabs. The decrease in an amount of phytoplankton increases the CO2 in the atmosphere which contributes the global warming.

Effect on Materials:

Degradation of paints and plastic.

Effect on Climate:

Global Warming and seasonal variation.

Effect on Human Health:

Damage genetic materials in the cells. Leads to more people suffering from Cataracts. 10% depletion in ozone layer results in 30% increase in skin cancer infection.

Effects on Biogeochemical Cycles:

SOLUTION

• Afforestation
• Low consumption of CFC’s and HCFC’S gasses
• Public awareness on this issue
• Strong implementation of Montreal Protocol

References:
1. Mackenzie L. Davis & David A. Cornwell, “Introduction to Environmental Engineering”, McGraw Hill.
2. Gilbert M. Masters, Standford University, “Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science”, Printice Hall.
3. Stephan Konz, Kansas State University, “Work design”, Grid Publishing Inc., Colombus, Ohio
4. C. S. Rao, “Environmental Pollution Control Engineering”, New age International (P) Limited, Publishers, India.