Primary and secondary data.

The data collected for the first time by an investigator for the primary data which refer to the purpose of certain study or information.Generally collected data needs large amount expenses and ling time period but data so collected is highly reliable if appropriate precaution is taken and can be collected through interviews, observations by or under the direct supervision of the researcher so that errors could be avoided.In many studies especially in review writing and analytical studies data and relevant information are to be collected from secondary sources.Published documents are the documents released by the government and the non-government agencies. The records in the form of information contained in the first letters, documents, proceedings of the meeting and conferences are the unpublished document.

Summary

Things to Remember

Data can be obtained from the primary or secondary source.
. Primary data are first-hand data and are fresh and origin in nature.
Collecting these data if the nature of the researcher or investigation is empirical, the collection of primary data is a must for must cases.
The secondary data are the data that have already been collected for a similar purpose. They may be either published or unpublished.

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Subjective Questions

Q1:

Write the psychological development across life span ?

Type: Long Difficulty: Easy

Show/Hide Answer

Answer: Psychosocial Stage 1 - Trust vs. Mistrust 
<ul>
<li>The first stage of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth and one year of age and is the most fundamental stage in life.</li>
<li>Because an infant is utterly dependent, the development of trust is based on the dependability and quality of the child’s caregivers.</li>
<li>If a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure in the world. Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust in the children they care for. Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable.</li>
</ul>
Psychosocial Stage 2 - Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
<ul>
<li>The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place during early childhood and is focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control.</li>
<li>Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process. However, Erikson's reasoning was quite different than that of Freud's. Erikson believes that learning to control one’s body functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of independence.</li>
<li>Other important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy preferences, and clothing selection.</li>
<li>Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who do not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt.</li>
</ul>
Psychosocial Stage 3 - Initiative vs. Guilt
<ul>
<li>During the preschool years, children begin to assert their power and control over the world through directing a play and other social interaction.</li>
<li>Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those who fail to acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative.</li>
</ul>
Psychosocial Stage 4 - Industry vs. Inferiority 
<ul>
<li>This stage covers the early school years from approximately age 5 to 11.</li>
<li>Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities.</li>
<li>Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a feeling of competence and belief in their skills.</li>
<li>Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents, teachers or peers will doubt their ability to be successful.</li>
</ul>
Psychosocial Stage 5 - Identity vs. Confusion 
<ul>
<li>During adolescence, children are exploring their independence and developing a sense of self.</li>
<li>Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration will emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and a feeling of independence and control. Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will insecure and confused about themselves and the future.</li>
</ul>
Psychosocial Stage 6 - Intimacy vs. Isolation 
<ul>
<li>This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal relationships.</li>
<li>Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with other people. Those who are successful at this step will develop relationships that are committed and secure.</li>
<li>Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson believed that a strong sense of personal identity was important to developing intimate relationships. Studies have demonstrated that those with a poor sense of self-tend to have less committed relationships and are more likely to suffer emotional isolation, loneliness, and depression.</li>
</ul>
Psychosocial Stage 7 - Generativity vs. Stagnation 
<ul>
<li>During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and family.</li>
<li>Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the world by being active in their home and community. Those who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world.</li>
</ul>
Psychosocial Stage 8 - Integrity vs. Despair 
<ul>
<li>This phase occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on life.</li>
<li>Those who are unsuccessful during this phase will feel that their life has been wasted and will experience many regrets. The individual will be left with feelings of bitterness and despair.</li>
<li>Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity. Successfully completing this phase means looking back with few regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction. These individuals will attain wisdom, even when confronting death.</li>
</ul>

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Primary and secondary data.

Data can be obtained from the primary or secondary source. Primary data refers to the information obtained firsthand by the researcher whereas secondary data refers to the information gathered from sources already existing.

Primary sources of data.

The data collected for the first time by an investigator for the primary data which refer to the purpose of certain study or information. Primary data are first-hand data and are fresh and origin in nature. The primary data are obtained in the survey and inquiry conducted by the government, some individual, institutions and researchers through surveys and experiments. These data are usually in a raw and bulky form and the data obtained in a census study are also called as primary data. Generally collected data needs large amount expenses and ling time period but data so collected is highly reliable if appropriate precaution is taken and can be collected through interviews, observations by or under the direct supervision of the researcher so that errors could be avoided.

Collecting these data if the nature of the researcher or investigation is empirical, the collection of primary data is a must for must cases.

Primary data are obtained by following.

Conducting informal schedule.
Administrating schedule.
Administrating mailed questionnaire.
Making field observation.
Using simulation or theoretical models.
Using simulation or theoretical models.

For the collection of primary data, the following five methods can be adopted.

Focus group discussion.
Survey (census and sample).

Example.

An investigator wants to study the salary of teachers working, in the campus. Then, the data collected for this purpose by the investigator himself or with the help of his representative, are primary data.

Another example.

If the researcher is interested to know about what the women think about the issue of abortion, he must undertake a survey and collect data on the opinion of women by asking relevant questions. Such data collected would be considered as primary data.

Merits of primary sources of data.

The merits of primary sources of data areas listed as following points which is discussed below.

More reliable and accurate information can be obtained.
Proper information from the respondents.
Minimise the errors.
Extensive enquiries covering a very wide area.
Additional supplementary information about the informant’s personal characteristics and environment can also obtain which may be useful while interpreting the result.

Demerits of secondary data.

More time and money required while collecting primary data.
More personal biases.
There is the high degree of non-response error from the illiterate respondents.
Not possible each and everywhere.
There is the chance of getting unreliable data in some situations because of biases of the enumerator.
There may be the lack of expertise and trained manpower or (required expert and trained manpower) for preparing for preparing a questionnaire and collecting primary data.
It may be difficult to reach to the field for collection of primary data. That is transportation facility is essential for the research field.

Secondary sources of data.

In many studies especially in review writing and analytical studies data and relevant information are to be collected from secondary sources.

The secondary data are the data that have already been collected for a similar purpose. They may be either published or unpublished.

Published data may be available in the reports, books and journals related to the subject matter of the investigation.

Unpublished data may be collected from agencies devoted to such similar works by making the request to them.

Secondary data are often needed for comparison purpose (Between different time points or different space points.) Therefore, in analytic studies and literature reviews, the secondary data play the important role in narrowing the research problem and justifying the conclusion to be drawn from the recent study.

Hence, any data that have been collected earlier for some purpose are secondary data of the individuals who are using them. The degree of accuracy of this type of data is comparatively less than that of the primary data.

OR, The records in the form of information contained in the first letters, documents, proceedings of the meeting and conferences are the unpublished document. Published documents are the documents released by the government and the non-government agencies.

Published source.

They are recorded from the reports, and official publication (ministries, departments of the government.
From reports and publications of reputed INGOs such as UNDP, ADB, UNESCO, WHO, World bank.
Records update by the department institution for their internal purpose.
Reports and publication of reliable NGO’s journals, periodicals etc.
Records maintained by research institutions, research schools etc.
Records maintained by government offices.

Merits.

It saves times and cost.
If a specially trained person collects it, the quality of secondary data is better.
Provides insight into the total situation.
Sometimes it may be also useful for the literature review.
Helps in the formulation of hypothesis.
The scope of inquiry can be increased in terms of areas and time period to be covered.
Helps in testing the hypothesis.

Demerits.

It is also considered as the oldest data.
It is useful for the collection of data for the only specific purpose.
The exact definition or terms used in a secondary data is known in many times.
Sometimes the unpublished data cannot easily be obtained as the persons hesitate to give it (Data).
When the secondary data are obtained from two sources, it m,ay not be compared in terms of definitions, units, and times of period covered.
Some information is often omitted or some categories are pooled.
Data may not be in the exact form of the requirement of the researcher.
Reliable and adequate data to the enquiry under study can rarely be obtained.
Aggregation of data in inappropriate unit.

Reference.

Kerlinger, F.N. Foundation of Behavioural Research. New Delhi: Surjeet Publication, 2000.

Kothari, C.R. Research Methodology. India: Vishwa Prakashan, 1990.

Singh, M.L. and J.M Singh. Understanding Research Methodology. 1998.

Singh, Mrigendra Lal. Understanding Research Methodology. Nepal: National Book centre, 2013.

Lesson

Needs and Nature of data

Subject

Research Methodology-II

Grade

Bachelor of Science

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