Behavioural Perspective

Meaning of Behavioural Perspectives

Human relation and behavioral science theories are the modified, enlarged and extended forms of classical theory. Workers, unions, social scientists and psychologists criticized scientific management, as it did not pay proper attention to the human side of organizations. These theories believe that successful management largely depends on the manager's ability to understand and work with and through people who have a variety of culture, backgrounds, perceptions, needs and aspirations. The classical theory focused on structure, order, formal organization, economic factors, work and objective rationality whereas human relation and behavioral science theory emphasized on social and psychological factors at work and emotions.

These theories can be studied separately by dividing them into two categories:

• Human relation approach which studies the importance of individuals within the organization, and
• Behavioral science approach which studies about the interpersonal relations and behavioral patterns of each worker.

Human Relation Approach

Human relation theory is also known as interpersonal behaviour theory. It studies the importance of individuals within the organization and interpersonal relations and behavioral patterns of each worker. The contributors to this theory were Elton Mayo and Mery Parker Follett. They emphasize that organization is a social system and the human resource is the most crucial component within it. The human relations theory comprises the following two studies:

• Hawthorne Experiments, and
• Participative Management

1. Hawthrone Experiments:

The real inspiration for the movement, however, stimulated from the Hawthrone experiments which were conducted by Prof. Elton Mayo and his colleagues at the western Electric Company's plant in Cicero, Illinois, the USA from 1927 to 1932. The plant employed 29,000 workers to make telephone parts and apparatus.

The Hawthrone experiment consists of four parts. These parts are briefly discussed below:

a. Illumination Experiment:

This experiment was started in 1924 in the Hawthrone Plant and continued for three years. The study was primarily conducted to measure the effects of lighting on the productivity of the workers in different divisions and sections of the organization. Illumination was manipulated for one group of workers and held constant for another group but in both the conditions productivity increased. From the experiment, it was observed that improved productivity could be gained not only by improved working conditions but also by promoting social relationships among workers as group members.

b. Relay Assembly Test Room Experiment:

In this experiment, two groups of six female telephone relay assemblers were put in segregates rooms. Recurrent changes were made in their working conditions such as hours of work, hot lunches, rest periods, wage incentive, nature of supervision etc. in one room and no change was made in other room. In spite of the frequent changes being made in working conditions over a period of several years, productivity tended to increase; even it rose and fell irrationally.

Even when the improvements in physical working conditions were withdrawn, the productivity and morale of the group stayed remained. Hence, the researchers concluded that socio-psychological factors such as feelings of importance, recognition, participation and non-directive supervision are the key for high worker productivity. The high moral appeared to be responsible for increasing productivity.

c. Mass Interviewing Program:

Under this phase, a group of 20,000 workers was interviewed to elicit information on their perceptions on the working life. The focus of this interviewing program was on human relations rather than on physical working conditions. After completing interviews, it was confirmed that the importance of informal relations, social and psychological needs influence the workers' behaviour and their productivity.

d. Bank Wiring Observation Room Experiment:

Under this experiment, 14 male workers were formed into a small workgroup and intensively observed for seven months in the bank wiring room. The men were engaged in the assembly of terminal banks for the use of telephone exchange. The purpose of the research was to make a more detailed analysis of the social relationships in a workgroup. From the experiment, the researchers concluded that employees would labor hard if they believe that the management was concerned about their welfare and supervisors paid special attention and care to them. The workers were guided more by group production norms than by official production norms. The productivity of employees can be improved by social factors such as moral and satisfactory relationships between management and workers.

2. Participative Management:

This theory is propounded by Mery Parker Follet. Participative management theory regards that management is getting things done through people. Human element in the workplace is important. Managers should motivate performance rather than demand it. Groups achieve the greater good of the organization. Management should achieve unity through coordination. Cooperation, unity and self-control serve as keys to better human relations. This theory has propounded different principles of management. The major principles are as follows:

a. Coordination by Direct Contact:

The concerned people must be in face to face contact regardless of their position in the organization. Horizontal communication is important as vertical chains of command in achieving coordination.

b. Coordination in Early Stages:

The people responsible should be included in policy-making and decision-making while these are being formed and not simply (be informed, ) afterwards. The benefits of participation will be obtained in terms of increased motivate and morale.

c. Coordination by Reciprocal Relations:

Interrelationships should be taken into account for coordination. Environment should be given importance.

e. Coordination as Continuing Process:

Many people contribute to a decision. They have joint responsibility. Authority flows from a function, not from position. Coordination is a continuous process.

Contribution of Human Relation Theory:

The results of the Hawthrone studies were published in 1941. The results have led to the increase in knowledge and understanding of workers and their works. The studies provided a landmark in the evolution of management thought and made a significant contribution to the process of humanizing organization and management. The main contributions of Hawthrone studies can be summarized as follows:

1. Employees are not motivated solely by money. Personal and social factors are important to motivate employees' attitudes toward their work.

2. Informal leaders play an important role in setting and enforcing group norms.

3. The importance of recognizing the concept of "social man" became unavoidable.

4. Management must understand and recognize interpersonal and group relations on the job.

5. Effective supervision plays an important role in maintaining employees' morale and productivity.

Limitations of Human Relations Theory:

The major limitations of human relations approach are as follows:

1. Human relation theory lacks adequate focus on work. It lays all emphasis on interpersonal relations and informal groups.

2. Human relations tend to neglect the economic dimension of work satisfaction.

3. The human relation movement is an anti-individualist. The discipline of the boss is simply replaced by the discipline of the group.

Emergence of Organizational Behavior or Behavioural Science Approach

Behaviour science is concerned with scientific investigation, analysis and understanding human behavior in organizations. The human relation approach neglected the behavioral patterns of the group. Behavioral approach is multidimensional and interdisciplinary in nature. Behavioral science approach is an improved and more modern version of human relation approach.

There are three main branches of behavioral sciences; psychology, sociology and anthropology. Psychology is the study of the individual behavior of all members of the organization. Sociology is the study of human behavior in groups. Anthropology is the study of physical, biological and cultural influences on human behavior as individuals and members of group.

A large number of behavioral scientists have made notable contributions to the management theory and practice. Notable among them is Abraham Maslow, Douglas McGregor, Fredric Herzberg, Mary Parker Follet etc.

Abraham Maslow: Need Hierarchy Theory

Abraham Maslow, a human psychologist developed a theory of human needs in 1943. He suggested that people have a complex set of needs. According to him, as the bottom level, needs are satisfied, they are no more motivating factors and the higher level needs become dominant. However, a need at one level does not have to be completely satisfied before the next need emerges. Very few people ever fully realize the fulfillment of the higher level needs and become self-actualized. Thus, there is always the basis for motivation. The following are the hierarchy of human needs:

Figure: Maslow Hierarchy of Needs

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1. Physiological Needs:

Physiological needs are the basic needs essential to survive which includes food, shelter, clothing, water, air, sleep, sex etc. In organizations, adequate wages, and the good working environment generally, satisfy these needs. Almost all organizations used to satisfy physiological needs.

2. Security Needs/ Safety Needs:

Security need includes protection against deprivation, danger and threat on or off the job. Organizations fulfill security needs by providing a stable job with medical, employment and retirement benefits.

3. Affiliation/ Social Needs:

Social needs include affection, sense of belonging, acceptance and friendship. Employees with high affiliation needs love working intimately with others. When an organization does not fulfill affiliation needs, employee dissatisfaction low morale appears regularly in different forms like frequent absenteeism, low productivity, stress-related behaviours and emotional breakdowns.

4. Esteem Needs:

Esteem needs includes internal factors such as self-respect, autonomy and attainment and exterior factors such as status, appreciation and attention. In order to satisfy these needs, people seek opportunities for achievement,power, promotion, prestige and status.

5. Self-Actualization Needs:

These needs are related to individual growth, self-fulfillment, and the realization of one's full potential. Self-actualization is the aspiration to become what one is competent of becoming.

A manager needs to identify the needs of individual workers to accomplish things from them. Unlike workers have unlike needs. so the main difficulty of a manager in applying this theory is to identify the needs of workers.

Douglas McGregor: Theory X and Y

Douglas McGregor was the professor of management. He observed that some people have sympathy, kindness and love for others. Others have tendencies toward cruelty, hate and destruction. McGregor has introduced such a dual nature of people into management theory. He concluded that manager view of human nature is based on group assumption either positive or negative. He named these contrasting sets of assumption Theory X and Theory Y. According to him, theory Y is a set of optimistic assumption about human nature and theory X is a set of pessimistic assumption about the worker.

Theory X is based on the traditional assumption about human behaviour. The general assumption of theory X are as follows:

1. Employees are lazy. They dislike work and tend to avoid it.

2. Since employees dislike work, they must be corrected, controlled or threatened with punishment to achieve desired goals.

3. Employees want to be directed and guided, they do not like to take responsibilities and want safety and they also have little ambition.

4. Most workers place securities above all other factors associated with work and will display little ambition.

Theory Y is an optimistic view of workers. It believes in positive and intrinsic motivation. Theory Y represents participative management. The subordinates, managers and organizations are seen as mutually supportive. The general assumption of theory Y are listed below:

1. Work is a natural activity for play or rest.

2. Employees become dedicated to work or to goal only to the limit until they reach their goal by receiving personal rewards.

3. People will utilize self-direction and self-control if they are devoted towards objectives.

4. The average person can learn to both accept and seek responsibility.

5. Many people in the general public have imagination, ingenuity and creativity.

As the managers get the work done from subordinates, it is necessary for them to understand the behavior of each worker as well as a group. Managers must create good working conditions which are possible only by knowing the behavioral patterns.

Fredrick Herzberg: Two Factor Theory

Fredrick Herzberg developed the duo-factor theory for work motivation. He was among the first behavioural scientists to look at motivating employees from unlike corners. This theory is based on the contents of interviews administered on 200 engineers and accountants. In carrying their research, Herzberg and his associates asked participants to describe job understanding that resulted in superior and inferior feeling about their job. From the research he found that there are two sets of needs or factors namely:

• Motivating Factor, and
• Hygiene Factor.

a.Hygiene Factor:

Hygiene factor is also known as dissatisfiers or maintenance factors. These are external to the job itself. The presence of these factors do not motivate employees but their presence causes dissatisfaction. When these factors are adequate, people will not be dissatisfied but they will not be satisfied either. Hygiene factor includes company policy and supervision, relationship with supervisor, working conditions, salary, relationship with peers, personal life, relationship with subordinates, job security, status etc. These factors are necessary to maintain a minimum level of need satisfaction.

b.Motivating Factors:

Motivating factors are also known as motivators, satisfies or job content factors. These factors are job centered and relate directly to the job itself. The presence of motivating factors causes high levels of motivation and job satisfaction, whereas their absence does not cause high dissatisfaction. These factors include achievement, recognition, advancement, work itself, the possibility of personal growth, responsibility etc. Herzberg came into conclusion that enriched jobs are the key to motivating employees.

The manager needs to identify the behavior of subordinates to inspire them to get the things done. He needs to know a worker's psychology and treat him accordingly.

Contributions of Behavioural Science Theory:

The main contributions of behavioral science theory are as follows:

1. This theory has identified the role of human elements in the organization.

2. It recognizes the quality of leadership as an important factor for the success of management.

3. It emphasizes on non-financial rewards.

4. It greatly emphasizes the role of individual psychology and group behavior for organizational effectiveness.

5. This theory has emphasized the self-direction of subordinates through workers' participation in planning and decision-making.

Limitations of Behavioural Science Theory:

The following are the main limitations of behavioral science theory:

1. This theory neglects the economic dimension of job satisfaction.

2. It has not considered situational variables.

3. It views management as nothing but applied behavioral science.

4. It has a clinical bias and lacks scientific validity.

Reference

(Poudyal, S.R., Pradhan, G.M. and Bhandari, K.P. (2011). Principles of Management. Kathmandu: Asmita Books publishers and Distributors Pvt. Ltd.)